راه اندازی ایستگاه پمپئی – موردی از بازاریابی کارآفرینانه

Launching Pompei Station – A case of Entrepreneurial Marketing

چکیده
1- مقدمه
2- صنعت
3- رقابت
4- تمایلات خاص (روند خاص)
5- رستوران پمپئی
6- ایستگاه پمپئی: بازار هدف
7- ایستگاه پمپئی: بازاریابی ترکیبی
8- راه رو به جلو
راه اندازی ایستگاه پمپئی: موردی از بازاریابی کارآفرینانه
الف) آموزش یادداشت برداری
ب) مخاطب هدف
ج) آهداف آموزش
د) متدولوژی موردی
ه) فرصتی برای تجزیه و تحلیل دانشجویان
تفاوت بین بازاریابی کارآفرینانه و بازاریابی کارآفرینی درون سازمانی
تم اصلی در بازاریابی کارآفرینانه
بازاریابی کارآفرینانه به عنوان یک ابزار استراتژیک

چکیده
این مورد بر اساس پیچیدگی ها و مشکلات مواجه شده کارآفرینان و مدیران رستوران های کوچک فست فود در پاکستان است. این مورد نیاز به بینش های تصمیم گیری و استراتژی های قوی برای حصول اطمینان از اینکه راه اندازی یک فست فود یا رستوران جدید باید در صنعت فست فود به صورت رقابتی باقی بماند.
ایستگاه پمپئی که در موقعیت استراتژیک واقع شده است، یک رستوران گران قیمت تهیه غذا در کراچی ی باشد. با تأکید بر زنجیره تأمین غذا با کیفیت بالا، کانال های توزیع، سفارشی سازی، و خدمات برتر به مشتری، استگاه پمپئی یک جایگاه برتری برای خود در صنعت ایجاد کرده است. به منظور گسترش عملیات خود، افزایش فروش و پایگاه مشتری، پمپئی تصمیم به راه اندازی سیستم تحویل خود با نام ایستگاه پمپئی گرفته است. با وجود اینکه پمپئی نفوذ خود در بازار را با خدمات تحویل به خانه افزایش داده است، با چالش های جدیدی مواجه است که نیاز دارد تا راه حل های نوآورانه ای را برای حصول اطمینان از پایداری خدمات تحویل خانگی خود ارائه نماید.
.
1- مقدمه
پمپئی در یک باشگاه سلامت و ورزش ترکیبی واقع شده است، یک رستوران تهیه غذا گران قیمت که گلچینی از غذاهای کراچی را دارد. با تأکید بر زنجیره تأمین غذا با کیفیت بالا، کانال های توزیع، سفارشی سازی و خدمات برتر به مشتری، ایستگاه پمپئی یک جایگاه برتر برای خود در صنعت ایجاد کرده است. به منظور گسترش عملیات خود، افزایش فروش و پایگا مشتری، پمپئی تصمیم به راه اندازی سیستم تحویل با نام ایستگاه « پمپئی» گرفته است. با جود اینکه پمپئی نفوذ بازار خود را با سیستم تحویل به خانه افزایش داده است، با چالش های بسیار زیادی نیز مواجه است که نیاز به راه حل های نوآورانه برای حصول اطمینان از پایداری خدمات تحویل به خانه دارد.
2- صنعت
صنعت رستوران در پاکستان نسبتاً بالغ و بسیار رقابتی است. رکود اقتصادی به طور قابل ملاحظه ای این صنعت را تحت تأثیر قرار داده است به این دلیل که مشتریان حساسیت بیشتری به قیمت دارند. با این حال، با توجه به تعداد محدود سرگرمی های موجود در پاکستان، مشتریان دائماً تصمیم به خوردن شام در رستوران می گیرند که به عنوان یک سرگرمی برای آنها تلقی می شود، بنابراین، به رشد صنعت در این بخش کمک می شود. صنعت رستوران جزء مهمی از اقتصاد ملی پاکستان است و فرصت های اشتغال در این بخش در آینده به عنوان نتیجه مستقیمی از تغییرات جمعیت شناختی ادامه می یابد. تعداد رستوران های در کراچی به علت تغییرات در عوامل جمعیت شناختی و اقتصادی که تأثیر قابل توجهی در صنعت رستوران در پاکستان دارند، به سرعت در حال افزایش است. افزایش شهر نشینی و افزایش در آمد قابل استفاده، برخی از عواملی هستند که به این رشد کمک می کنند. علاوه بر این، درامد قابل توجه در میان مشتریان به ویژه در شهرهایی مانند کراچی، لاهور و اسلام آباد گرایش به خوردن غذا و رشد خرده فروشی سازمان یافته تا رشد سوخت در بخش خدمات غذا کمک کرده است. طبق روزنامه Dawn، در سال های اخیر پاکستانی ها به دلیل افزایش درآمد و سطح آگاهی، عادت های مربوط به هزینه های خود را از سر گرفته اند. افراد کمتر به مشکلات اقتصادی توجه دارند و مایل هستند غذای بیشتر و لوکس تری را مصرف کنند در حالی که آگاهی بیشتری در مورد اینکه چه چیزی بخرند و چگونه خود را سرگرم کنند، دارند.

Abstract

This case is based on the complexities and problems faced by entrepreneurs and managers of small fast food restaurants in Pakistan. It requires strong decision making insights and strategies to make sure that the new start-ups must survive in the fiercely competitive fast food industry. Pompei Station, located at a strategic location is a high end restaurant catering to the elites of Karachi. With emphasis on high quality food supply chain, distribution channels, customization and superior customer service, Pompei Station has created a premium place in the industry. In order to expand its operations, increase the sales and customer base, Pompei decided to launch its delivery system with the name ‘Pompei Station’. Even though Pompei has increased its market penetration with its home delivery service, it has also faced many new challenges that require Pompei to come up with innovative solutions to ensure the sustainability of is home delivery service.

1- Introduction

Pompei, located in the Shapes Health Club compound, is a rustic and a high end restaurant catering to the elites of Karachi. With emphasis on high quality food supply chain, distribution channels, customization and superior customer service, Pompei Station has created a premium place in the industry. In order to expand its operations, increase the sales and customer base, Pompei decided to launch its delivery system with the name ‘Pompei Station’. Even though Pompei has increased its market penetration with its home delivery service, it has also faced many new challenges that require Pompei to come up with innovative solutions to ensure the sustainability of is home delivery service.

2- Industry

The restaurant industry of Pakistan is moderately mature and highly competitive. The economic downturn has significantly impacted the industry as consumers are becoming more price-sensitive. However due to limited amount of entertainment available in Pakistan, consumers have consistently opt for dinning out as a mean of entertainment, thus contributing towards a positive growth in this sector. The restaurant industry is an important component of our nation’s economy, and employment opportunities in this sector should continue to grow in the future as a direct result of the demographic changes taking place. The number of restaurants in Karachi is rapidly increasing as a result of the changes in demographic and economic factors which have a significant impact on the restaurant industry in Pakistan. Increasing urbanization and rising disposable incomes are some of the factors that are contributing to this growth. In addition, higher disposable incomes among consumers particularly in the urbanized cities such as Karachi, Lahore and Islamabad the trend towards eating out are combining with growth in organized retailing to fuel growth in the foodservice sector. According to Dawn Newspaper, in the recent years Pakistanis have resumed their spending habits, as a result of increasing income and awareness levels. People are less concerned with economic difficulties and are willing to spend more on food and luxuries while having greater awareness about what they buy and how they entertain themselves.

راه اندازی ایستگاه پمپئی – موردی از بازاریابی کارآفرینانه

Launching Pompei Station – A case of Entrepreneurial Marketing

تاثیر زیرساخت حمل و نقل بر رشد اقتصادی: شواهدی تجربی از پاکستان

The impact of transportation infrastructure on economic growth: empirical evidence from Pakistan

Abstract

The direct and indirect effects of transportation infrastructure have a positive impact on the economic growth and development of a country. Apart from improving accessibility, infrastructure development brings along trade and investment opportunities to the previously unconnected regions. It also provides access to goods, services, and employment opportunities in these regions through the multiplier effect. In this paper, a panel of data is employed using the unit root, cointegration, and Granger Causality (GC) model to test whether causal linkages between economic growth and transportation infrastructure exist at national and provincial level. The findings suggest that in the short run, there is no causality between the two variables at the national level, however, a unidirectional causality from economic development to infrastructure investment exists in the long run. At the provincial level, bidirectional causality in the rich and much developed provinces exists, whereas a unidirectional GC exists from economic growth to transportation infrastructure in the underdeveloped provinces. The outcomes of the model shed light on the fact that infrastructure investment per se is not sufficient to boost the economic activity in the underdeveloped regions of Pakistan. A cointegrated investment package is needed, targeting not only infrastructure but also the social and technological development, which can help these regions to realize the promotion of economic growth in the long run.

1 Introduction

The role of infrastructure in economic growth and social welfare has been studied extensively across the literature over the past years (Sahoo and Dash, 2009; Lakshmanan, 2011; Yu et al., 2012 among others). The contributions of an efficient and effective transportation system to economic growth and stability are numerous, for example, the costs of transportation and production are reduced through timely delivery and enhancing the economies of scale in the production process, integrating markets, creating economic opportunities, and communication links, enhancing the competitive advantage of the production and economy, thereby promoting trade. A competent transportation system also generates a large number of employment opportunities, encourages tourism and foreign investment. These positive outcomes of effective transportation system are more pertinent to developing countries.

Globally transportation and communication are changing every aspect of human life, from trade to manufacturing, education, research, entertainment, culture, and defense. Most emerging economies being aware of the strength of these services are transforming their resources towards knowledge and communications. Recently, however, developing countries are struggling to maintain investment in infrastructure because of the commodity prices and the global financial crisis. Consequently, many new mega projects mainly in the energy and water sectors are closed (Commission, 2011). Many Governments are now turning to alternative modes of financing, such as public private partnership and build-operate-transfer (BOT) models. However, even these modes of financing have proven challenging for most developing countries as they have yet to come up with a legal and regulatory framework for such transactions. Until such a framework exists, infrastructure financing will continue through foreign aid, collecting taxes, and imposing development and user charges.

The discussion on the nexus between infrastructure and economic growth was fueled in the last two decades. Perhaps the first empirical insight into the subject came from Aschauer (1989a, 1989b, 1989c), suggesting investment in infrastructure has a significant positive effect on production and economy. Holtz-Eakin and Schwartz (1995), however, contested the empirical evidences showing the positive relationship between infrastructure and economic growth, and document no evidence of quantitatively important spillovers of state highways on the growth of US economy. Later, by employing Mexican data Lachler and Aschauer (1998) instigated an entirely new debate among researcher by suggesting that investments alone are not sufficient for economic growth. Since then, a plethora of empirical studies examined the linkage between infrastructure and economic growth by introducing new variables having plausible impact on economic growth. The existing scholarship embarking on this subject is divided into two strands, one concerned with the output elasticity of infrastructure capital, whereas the other on optimal and effective use of infrastructure for economic growth. As far as the first branch is concerned, many researchers have reported a positive output elasticity of infrastructure investment (Munnell, 1992; Bank, 1994; Holtz-Eakin and Schwartz, 1995; Calderón and Servén, 2004; Canning and Bennathan, 2007, Crafts, 2009; Sahoo and Dash, 2009). Similarly, Fujita and Thisse (2002), Crafts (2009), Chen (2010) and Lakshmanan (2011) shed light on the optimal level of infrastructure for economic growth. Among these, of particular importance is Canning and Pedroni (2008) research as they emphasized that there is an optimal level of infrastructure maximizing the growth rate and anything above would divert investment from more productive resources, thereby reducing overall growth.

Despite the fact, existing studies provide a useful insight on the impact of infrastructure and economic growth across a range of countries; however, there are no studies examining this relationship in Pakistan which has the unique economic characteristics. Pakistani economy is characterized with the political instability, lack of rule of law, institutional instability, and higher extent of corruption of government officials – all these features somehow negatively influence the relationship between infrastructure and economic growth. In an attempt to fill this literary gap, this paper investigates the GC relationship between Pakistan’s national and provincial transportation infrastructure development and economic growth by employing a panel data over the period of 1982–2010. The provincial level analysis will provide a valuable insight into the causality (or lack of causality) between infrastructure and economic growth and will serve to compare the findings at the national level and provincial level. Moreover, such a study will also illustrate the disparity between different provinces of Pakistan in terms of economic growth and infrastructure investment. As far as we know, this is among the first study conducted on the causality between Pakistan’s transportation infrastructure and economic growth.

The rest of the paper proceeds as follows. Next section provides a brief literature review of related studies. A discussion on the current situation of infrastructure and economic condition of Pakistan will be followed. Subsequently, the data and methodology will be presented. It is followed by the empirical analysis, whereas the last section concludes the paper.

تاثیر نسبت بازده سود سهام و قیمت به درآمد بر بازده های سهام: یک مطالعه از شرکت های غیر مالی فهرست شده پاکستان

Impact of Dividend Yield and Price Earnings Ratio on Stock Returns: A Study Non-Financial listed Firms of Pakistan

Abstract

The economic behavior of companies have great importance because these behavior have great influence on performance of firms. In Pakistan, economic behavior has hardly explored. The present study analyzed the impact of dividend yield and price earnings ratio on stock returns. The relationship between size and stock price were also determined. In present study, the data of 111 non-financial KSE listed firms for period of 1998 to 2009 have used. The advance econometrics techniques were employed for analysis and determining the relationship of these variables. The impact of dividend yield and price earnings ratio on stock returns was determined by using fixed effect model. The findings of study reveals that price earnings ratio and size of firm have significant positive impact on stock prices. There were found significant negative relationship between dividend yield and stock prices. The findings also suggests that investors can apply investment criteria that employ size of firm and price earnings ratio anomalies to earn abnormal return.

1 Introduction

Stock market is the most important part of any economy. The judgment of countries economic condition is measured through the performance of its stock market (Bashir et al., 2011). At the end of 2009, 651 companies were listed on Karachi Stock Exchange (KSE). The paid up capital was Rs. 894.2 billion and percentage of GDP it was 6 percent. At the end 2009, aggregate market capitalization was Rs. 2,890 billion. Market capitalization to GDP is less than 20 percent, which is very low. Corporate profitability has decreased since 2006(GOP, 2009). After tax profit for the listed firms have decline 77 percent among 2006 to 2009. As compare to 2008, after tax profit decrease 67 percent in 2009, manifesting the impact of a difficult operating environment (GOP, 2009). A bad law and order situation in the country, the crisis of balance of payments and rupee depreciation of more than 20 percent, and the energy crisis have all combined to decline profits (GOP, 2009). The stander KSE100 share increase 33 percent, in line with having greater recovery in equity markets. At the end of 2009, dividend ratio to equity is same, which is 11 percent. Corporate sector dividend payout has been growing by 8.60 percent as compared to 8.83 percent in 2008.Earnings per share after tax which was Rs. 2.60 per share in 2008 has increased to Rs. 2.90 per share in 2009 (BSA, 2009). These financial ratios show the strength of a company. This strength attracts the investors if it has high earning and high total assets. They can invest in those stocks which have high growth and earn the abnormal returns.

For last few decades financial analysts trying to explore suitable models to value shares. Valuation of stock can be determined by many ways, two most important models among analysts are the Dividend Discount Model and the Earnings Multiplier model. Some literatures in finance suggest that the Dividend Discount Model is very important approach employed by the fundamentalists. The DDM assumes that the best estimate of the current value of a company’s common stock is the PV of the estimated divided by future dividends paid by company to its shareholders.

Some researchers, analysts, and investors suggest that this DDM approach has limited usefulness. According to MM (1961) argued that, DDM have some strict assumptions, under this strict assumptions, dividend is insignificant to the firm’s value. Therefore, no one can forecast dividends with great accuracy. Technically, we can call this model an estimate of all future dividends from now to infinity, which is an impossible. Finally, many investors prefer capital gain and as compare to dividends, some investors, focusing solely on dividend is less desirable.

Hence in the light of above restrictions and objections, the earnings multiplier or price earning model remains an important method to valuation. It is not as much sophisticated as DDM, less formal, more intuitive model and easy to use. In fact price earnings model help investors to understand DDM. Basu (1977) suggest that dividend is carried out of earning, investors must estimate the growth in earnings before going to estimate the growth in dividends.

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5- نتايج:
يافته ها در جدول 1 موجود اند.بر اين اساس،هزينه هاي پايين خدمات و سود بالا مورد توجه بسياري از مشتريان جهت انتخاب بانك قرار گرفته كه از سطح معناداري برخوردار است . اگرچه انگيزه هاي ديني نيز مورد توجه بسياري از مشتريان جهت انتخاب بانك قرار گرفته كه از سطح معناداري برخوردار است.شايان ذكر است كه كيفيت خدمات تاحدودي به عنوان عامل مهمي در انتخاب بانك انتخاب شده بنابراين بر اساس يافته هاي فوق،3 فرضيهِ :1)فرضيه 2:شاخص كيفيت خدمات مي تواند بر انتخاب يك بانك اسلامي اثر گذارد 2) فرضيه 3:شاخص انگيزه هاي ديني مي تواند بر انتخاب يك بانك اسلامي اثر گذارد و3) فرضيه 8:شاخص سود بالا و هزينه هاي پايين خدمات دهي، مي تواند بر انتخاب يك بانك اسلامي اثر گذارد،را نمي توان رد كرد.

6- مباحثات و نتيجه گيري:

يافته هاي اين مقاله نشان داد كه هزينه هاي پايين خدمات و سود بالا،مهم ترين عوامل از ديدگاه مشتريان جهت انتخاب بانك هاي اسلامي مطابق با گفته جرارد و كانينگهام(2015) محسوب شده ،اين افراد بر اين باورند كه سود بالا همراه با هزينه هاي پايين خدمات مي تواند بر جذب مشتريان اثر گذارد .در مقابلِ يافته هايِ ارول و ال بودر(1989)،اين مقاله نشان داد كه انگيزه هاي ديني دومين عامل جهت انتخاب بانك محسوب شده ،زاهر و حسن(2001) نيز به بررسي 8 ميليارد دلار سود به دست آمده طي 3 ماهه نخست سال 2011 در بانك هاي اسلامي پرداخته و رشد 58درصدي در اين بانك ها را به علت شاخص انگيزه هاي مذهبي،نشان دادند.
جرارد و كانينگهام(2001) بر اين باورند كه شاخص كيفيت خدمات مي تواند بر انتخاب بانك هاي اسلامي دست مشابه با يافته هاي آوان و بوخاري(2011)،العجمي،الصالح و حسين(2009) اثر گذارد .اين مقاله نيز نشان داد كه شاخص فوق مورد پذيرش بسياري از مشتريان جهت انتخاب بانك اسلامي قرار گرفته است .

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5. Results

The findings of this paper as they are shown in table 1, that high profit and low service charges matters the most for selecting Islamic banks by consumers as the mean of respondents perceptions about this construct is found significantly more than the test value (level of agreement) i.e.4.30>4. While, religious motives also matters for selecting Islamic banks as the mean perception for this construct is also more than the test value (level of agreement) i.e. 4.08>4. It is important to note that service quality is somehow also considered as the important factor by the overall perceptions as the mean of respondent’s perceptions for this constructs is near to test value. Therefore, on the basis of stated findings we fail to reject the three hypotheses i.e. H2: Quality of service effects consumers’ selection of an Islamic bank, H3: Religious motives effects consumers’ selection of an Islamic bank, and H8: High profit & Low service charges effects consumers’ selection of an Islamic bank only.

6. Discussion and Conclusion

The findings of this paper confirms that High profit & Low service charges is the most important factors as perceived by the respondents of Pakistani space and it should be considered by banks including Islamic banks as also suggested by Gerrard and Cunningham (2015) where they believed that the high profit with low service charges influences and attracts the customers the most. In contrast to Erol and El-Bdour (1989) this paper accentuates that religious motives is the second most influencing construct when customers go for selecting Islamic banks as also confirmed by Zaher and Hassan (2001) that Islamic banks are out performing in the overall banking industry in Pakistan and earned 8 billion in profit for the third quarter of 2011, showing a growth of 58% due to the religious motives of the inhabitants of Pakistani space which are turned into their customers. Cunningham and Gerrard (2011) believed that the Service quality can be an influencing factor for selecting Islamic banks while the same is concluded by Awan and Bukhari (2011); Al-Ajmi, Al-Saleh, and Hussain (2009) in their research findings. This paper also supports the above stated finding that service quality also somehow matters when customers go for selecting Islamic banks.

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در سطح جهانی؛ در مباحث سلامت دهان پوسیدگی دندان در کودکان شیوع بیتری داشته است al, 2004).. (Bader et. بدلیل شیوع بالای ان در دنیا؛ پوسیدگی در کودکان اغلب به عنوان بیماری همه گیر توصیف می شود که نسبت بالای حفره های پوسیده دندان درمان نشده با درد؛ پریشانی و عدم عملکرد شناخته می شود.(Edelstein, 2006)
بعلاوه این عدم درمان خسارات پوسیدگی دندان اثر زیادی روی سلامت کلی کودکان دارد؛ که از چگونه بودن سطح درآمد و اجتماع متاثر می شود (Sheiham, 2006). مشاهده شده است که عدم درمان پوسیدگی دندان در کودکان کشور های در حال توسعه از کودکان کشورهای توسعه یافته بیشتر است(Baelum et al, 2007)..
پاکستان یک کشور درحال توسعه است که با یک رشد سریع شهرنشینی روبرو شده است(Jan et al, 2008).. بررسی های قبلی از سلامت دهان در پاکستان نشان می دهد که بیشتر از 90% کل آسیب های پوسیدگی دندان درمان نشده اند(Khan, 1992; Haleem and Khan, 2001; Khan et al, 2004) و شیوع بیماری های دهان در مناطق شهر و روستا برابر است (Khan etal, 2004). هر چند این مطالعات؛ شامل کودکان پسش دبستانی نیست. بنابراین شیوع پوسیدگی و سطح سلامت دهان در کودکان در سن پیش دبستانی ناشناخته است.
کودکان زیر 5سال (کودکان پیش دبستانی) جمعیت قابل توجهی از مردم پاکستان را تشکیل می دهند.هدف از این مطالعه ارزیابی شیوع پوسیدگی در کودکان زیر 5 سال و نیز بررسی اینکه آیا شهر نشینی و درآمد به سطح خرابی دندان در کودکان پیش دبستانی در بخش لاهور پاکستان مرتبط است یا نه.
مواد و روش ها
نظرسنجی حاضر در منطقه لاهور پاکستان با همکاری برنامه ملی مراقبت های اولیه و برنامه ریزی خانواده (NPPH و FP) انجام شد. سابقه کامل خانواده ها در منطقه NPPH و FP به دست آمد. مجوز مدیر NPPH و FP، مدیر خدمات بهداشتی (DHS) و دولت پنجاب به منظور جذب کارمندان بهداشتی بانوان (LHWs) در انجام این نظرسنجی مطلوب بود. نمونه برداری چند مرحله ایی تصادفی با جمع آوری تمونه ها از کودکان شهری و مناطق روستایی انجام شد.در مرحله اول یک لیست از مناطق تابع NPPH & FP هر دو مکان شهری و روستایی تهیه شد.4 مکان- دو روستایی و دو شهری- بطور تصادفی انتخاب شدند.در مرحله بعد همه خوانواده های دارای فرزندان تا سن 5سال لیست شدند. از این لیست؛725خوانواده بطور تصادفی انتخاب شدند؛ 475 خوانواده شهری و230 روستایی.
تعداد کل کودکان 3 تا 5 سال 1422 نفر بوده است.نمونه گیری تصادفی طبقه ایی انجام شد؛ وهر دومین کودک انتخاب شد تا در این مطالعه 700 کودک درکل نام نویسی شدند. در مرحله دوم ؛انتخاب تصادفی 32 LHWsبرای مراکز شهر و9 یرای مراکز روستا انجام شد. LHWs یک کارگاه برای انجام پرسشنامه برگزارکرده بود در حالیکه نویسنده نیز تمریناتی را برای معاینات سلامت دندان درجه بندی کرده بود.
داده های جمع اوری شده از کودکان در رابطه با سن ؛ جنس؛ سطح اقتصادی؛ و منطقه سکونت آنها بوده است. براساس سطح اقتصادی مطالعه جمعیت به دو گروه بر اساس درآمد خانواده تقسیم شده است: گروه با درآمد کم(درامد خوانواده کمتر از 5000PKR در هر ماه) و گروه با درامد متوسط (درآمد خانواده بیشتر از 5000PKR در هر ماه).
معاینات بالینی برای پوسیدگی های دندان بوسیله اولین نویسنده که بوسیله اپیدمیولوزیست قبلی کالیبره شده بودانجام شده بود. در توافق بررسی کننده، Kappa = 0.86 بود. سطوح پوسیدگی دندان کودکان با استفاده از شاخص dmft ثبت شد. ضوابط توصیه شده توسط WHO برای تشخیص پوسیدگی دندان مرود قبول واقع شد.معاینه سلامت دندان هر کودک بوسیله نویسنده اصلی که از یک آینه دهان مسطح که فقط برای منقبض کردن بافت نرم استفاده می شد انجام شد.معاینات چشمی در یک فضای باز در نور روز انجام شد در حالیکه کودک در آغوش مادرش در حالت زانو به زانونشسته بود یا بطور مستقل روی یک صندلی عمدی معمولی نشسته بود. معاینات دندان بین 2تا 5 ماه انجام شد؛ که بسنگی به سطح همکاری کودک داشت.چارت معاینات کودک توسط خود محقق پر می شد. در انتهای معاینه به کودکان یک نمونه از خمیر دندان کودکان داده می شد.

بخشی از مقاله انگلیسی:

Globally, issues of oral health in children revolve predominantly around dental caries (Bader et al, 2004). Due to its high prevalence worldwide, caries in children has often been described as a  ‘pandemic’ disease characterised by a high proportion of untreated carious cavities causing pain, distress and functional restrictions (Edelstein, 2006). In addition, these untreated carious lesions have a considerable impact on the general health of children, which influences the social and economic well-being of communities (Sheiham, 2006). It has been observed that untreated caries among children is more widespread in developing than in developed countries (Baelum et al, 2007). Pakistan is a developing country confronted with a rapid growth of urbanisation (Jan et al, 2008). Previous surveys of oral health in Pakistan indicate that more than 90% of all carious lesions are untreated (Khan, 1992; Haleem and Khan, 2001; Khan et al, 2004) and that this oral disease is equally prevalent in urban and rural areas (Khan et al, 2004). These studies, however, did not include preschool children. Therefore, the prevalence of caries and dental health status of the preschoolage children are not known. Children under five years of age (preschool children) constitute a considerable proportion of Pakistani population. The purpose of this study was to assess the caries prevalence in children less than five years old and also examine whether urbanisation and income are associated with the dental decay status of these preschool-age children in the district of Lahore, Pakistan.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The present survey was conducted in the district of Lahore, Pakistan, in collaboration with National Program for Primary Healthcare and Family Planning (NPPH & FP). A complete record of households in the encatchment area of the NPPH & FP was obtained. Permission from the Director of the NPPH & FP, the Director of Health Services (DHS) and the government of the Punjab was sought to involve the Lady Health Workers (LHWs) in carrying out this survey. Multistage random sampling was done to collect the sample of children from urban and rural areas. In the first stage, a list of areas where NPPH & FP was functional was prepared both for urban and rural sites. Four sites – two rural and two urban – were randomly selected. In the next step, all the households were listed that housed children up to five years of age. Out of this list, 725 households were randomly selected: 475 urban and 230 rural. The number of 3- to 5-year-old children totaled 1422. Stratified random sampling was done, and every second child was selected until a total of 700 children were enrolled in the study. At the second stage, a random selection of 32 LHWs was done for urban centres and 9 for rural centres. The LHWs were trained during a workshop for implementation of the questionnaires, while the author underwent calibration exercises for dental health examination. Data of children regarding their age, gender, socioeconomic status (SES) and area of residence were collected. Based on socioeconomic status, the study population was divided into two groups based on the family income: a low income group (family income < PKR 5000 per month) and a middle income group (family income > PKR 5000 per month). Clinical examination for dental caries was conducted by the first author who was calibrated by a previously calibrated epidemiologist. The intra-examiner reliability was Kappa = 0.86. The children’s caries status was recorded by using the dmft index. The criteria recommended by the WHO for diagnosing dental caries were adopted. A dental health examination of each child was carried out by the principal author using a plain mouth mirror, only to retract the soft tissues. Visual examination was done in an open space in broad daylight while the child sat either in the mother’s lap in a knee-toknee position or independently in an ordinary upright chair. The dental examination took between 2 and 5 minutes, depending upon the child’s level of cooperation. The oral health examination charts were filled in by the researcher herself. The children were given a sample of paediatric toothpaste at the end of the examination.