ارزیابی مبتنی بر GIS مبنی بر اثربخشی و پوشش مکانی شبکه های حمل و نقل عمومی در مقصد گردشگری

A GIS-Based Evaluation of the Effectiveness and Spatial Coverage of Public Transport Networks in Tourist Destinations

Abstract

This article develops a methodology for evaluating the effectiveness and spatial coverage of public transport in tourist cities. The proposed methodology is applied and validated in Cambrils municipality, in the central part of the Costa Daurada in Catalonia, a coastal destination characterised by the concentration of tourism flows during summer. The application of GIS spatial analysis tools allows for the development of a system of territorial indicators that spatially correlate the public transport network and the distribution of the population. The main novelty of our work is that this analysis not only includes the registered resident population, but also incorporates the population that temporarily inhabits the municipality (tourists). The results of the study firstly permit the detection of unequal spatial accessibility and coverage in terms of public transport in the municipality, with significant differences between central neighbourhoods and peripheral urban areas of lower population density. Secondly, they allow observation of how the degree of public transport coverage differs significantly in areas with a higher concentration of tourist accommodation establishments.

1 Introduction

The extensive growth of cities in recent decades, combined with the sustained increase in daily mobility, has meant a rise in the use of mechanised means of transport in urban areas, as well as the generation of high levels of traffic congestion and a severe environmental impact. At a time of growing concern for global warming, an increased use of public transport is seen as part of the solution [1], and an effective way of reducing external costs and the negative effects of motorised travel [2]. The relationship between transport and environmental, social and economic sustainability has been explored by a number of researchers [1,3–8].

In this context, one of the strategic objectives of many city governments is to promote the substitution of the use of private motorised vehicles with other systems that have a lower impact on the environment, the economy and public health, such as public transport, walking or cycling [9]. However, organising an alternative user-friendly transport system that is effective in providing services and facilities that can guarantee the shortest possible travel and waiting times [10] is not a simple process. A public user-friendly transport system requires consideration of crucial aspects such as accessibility to stops/stations, system mobility and connectivity with other transport modes [11]. The spatial equity of transport systems impacts on economic dynamics, personal opportunities and, ultimately, the quality of life of the population [12,13]. In other words, poor planning of territorial coverage can lead to situations of social disadvantage. In this regard, the contribution of GIS in the field of Transport Geography is more than a simple control of generic functionality [14]. GIS offer key possibilities in transport modelling [15], facilitating the storage, updating and processing of spatial data and allowing the planning, analysis, control and management of transport networks.

Numerous and widely varying research studies have used GIS tools to analyse and organise transport networks. Blythe et al. [16] examined the wide range of emerging technologies and techniques capable of integrating different public transport modes and services at urban and inter-city scale in order to improve the attractiveness and competitiveness of public transport networks to the detriment of the use of private vehicles. Arampatzis et al. [15] presented a GIS-based decision support system (DSS) to analyse and evaluate different transport policies with the purpose of improving environmental and energy efficiency in the supply of transport. Different characteristics of public transport, including spatial coverage, frequency, comfort or fleet adaptation for disabled persons, may require special analysis, given that they provide an understanding of the efficacy and equity of the service provided for the citizens. Along these lines, Murray [7] identified the inefficiencies of the coverage of access to public transport in the city of Brisbane using GIS-based spatial analysis techniques. Moro and Villaescusa [17] studied spatial accessibility to primary schools in Bilbao, basing their work on the hypothesis that the criteria used to assign students to schools were not the most appropriate, with some students possibly being forced to commute for longer spatial and temporal distances than necessary. Salado et al. [18] proposed a set of indicators related to measurements of the equity and efficiency of the urban public transport service of the city of Alcala de Henares (Madrid). Saghapour et al. [2], in the city of Melbourne (Australia), developed a new measure of accessibility to public transportation that integrated transport service frequencies and population density. The results show that the use of public transport is substantially higher in areas with a higher rate of accessibility. Delmelle and Casas [19] evaluated the spatial equity of the express bus transport service in the city of Cali (Colombia) by means of exploration patterns of accessibility in relation to the socioeconomic level of the city neighbourhoods. They demonstrated that transport network accessibility was higher for middle-class neighbourhoods than for those of higher and lower socioeconomic classes. Cardozo et al. [20] analysed the relationship between urban and socioeconomic variables and the demand for public transport in the subway system of Madrid.

Other interesting and particularly innovative applications have been developed by Benenson et al. [21] and Stenneth et al. [22]. The first presented an extension of ArcGIS©, Urban.Access, which allows to estimate and compare the accessibility of different modes of transport to the workplace and other places of interest. Meanwhile, the second proposed a methodology for identifying user mode of transport by means of GPS sensors in their mobile devices and knowledge of the transport network (real-time bus location; spatial information of the railway line, and spatial data about bus stops and stations).

روابط بین مسافرت روزانه و سرمایه اجتماعی در بین مردان و زنان در جنوب سوئد

Relationships Between Commuting and Social Capital Among Men and Women in Southern Sweden

Abstract

The societal need for a mobile workforce increases time spent commuting and thus also the total workday. How this affects individual well-being and social life is, however, surprisingly little known. We investigated the relation between commuting time and mode, and social participation and general trust in other people as measures of social capital, using data from public health surveys conducted in 2004 and 2008 in Scania, Sweden: in all, 21,088 persons ages 18 to 65 and working at least 30 hr per week. Commuting by car was significantly associated with a higher prevalence of low social participation and low general trust compared with active commuting, and the association increased with the duration of commuting time. In contrast, public commuting was not significantly associated with decreased social capital measures except among long-duration commuters, who reported lower social participation. The overall pattern was similar for men and for women.

It has been claimed that commuting, traveling from the home to the workplace, increases material wealth (Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions, 2009; Swedish Government Official Report, 2007). Enlarged job regions create more opportunities for work and strengthen the economy for both individuals and society. A more flexible and accessible labor market for companies is created by making the workforce available over larger geographical areas. Individuals are given increased opportunities to find jobs and select places to live. For these reasons, there is political will in many countries to expand labor market areas, resulting in an increase in overall commuting (European Policy Brief, 2008; Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions, 2009). In Sweden, the average commuting distance has increased from 10 km in 1970 to 15.6 km in 2005 (The Swedish Board of Housing, Building, and Planning, 2005).

There is a concern among researchers that increased mobility in society is increasing the geographical spread of individuals’ social networks, reducing their engagement in neighborhoods and thereby threatening social welfare by lowering the sense of security and belonging on a local level (Bergström, 2010). However, there are surprisingly few data from population-based epidemiological studies exploring the individual and community effects of everyday commuting.

Social capital is a resource emerging from social relations in a society that can be used to solve problems of an individual or a collective nature (Bourdieu, 1986; Ferlander, 2007; Kawachi, Kennedy, & Glass, 1999; Putnam, 2000). “Social capital is the glue that holds societies together and without which there can be no economic growth or human well-being” (World Bank Social Capital Initiative, 1998, p. iii); it is often defined as a social network that creates benefits from the interaction between the individuals in the network (Bourdieu, 1986; Cullen & Whiteford, 2001).

According to Bourdieu (1986) and Coleman (1988), social capital exists in the structure of the social network—in contrast to economic capital, which exists in the bank, and human capital, which exists in the mind. Thus, social capital exists not in the person who possesses the resource but in that individual’s relations to other persons (Portes, 1998). Through civic participation, norms of reciprocity and trust are established, and cooperation leads to mutual benefits (Kawachi, Kennedy, Lochner, & Prothrow-Stith, 1997). Lower levels of social capital can be associated with consequences for the individual and society, such as tax evasion, low levels of political engagement, bad health, and poor educational performance (Coleman, 1988; Feng & Boyle, 2013; Putnam, 2000)

جدولبندی زمانی حمل و نقل بهینه از نوع چند خودرو و برنامه ریزی زمانی خودرو

Optimal Multi-Vehicle Type Transit Timetabling and Vehicle Scheduling

چکیده

1- مقدمه
2- بررسی نوشته های مختصر
2-1- جدولبندی زمانی
2-2- برنامه ریزی زمانی خودرو
3- پیش زمینه جدولبندی زمانی فاصله مساوی و حجم مساوی
3-1- جدولبندی زمانی فاصله مساوی با انتقال هموار
3-2- جدولبندی های زمانی حجم مساوی
4- ترکیب جدولبندی زمانی حجم مساوی و فاصله مساوی با استفاده از انواع مختلف خودرو
4-1- مقدمه و پیش زمینه
4-2- روش شناسی
4-3- نتایج
5- زمانبندی خودرو با چند خودرو انواع
5-1- پیش زمینه تابع کسری
5-2- چارچوب بهینه سازی مشکل برنامه ریزی زمانی نوع خودرو
5-3- مثال
6- نتیجه گیری

چکیده

فرایند برنامه ریزی زمانی عملیات حمل و نقل عمومی (حمل و نقل) به طور معمول شامل چهار فعالیت اساسی می شود که معمولا در دنباله زیر انجام می شوند: طراحی شبکه، توسعه جدول زمانی، برنامه ریزی زمانی خودرو، و برنامه ریزی زمانی خدمه. این کار به دو فعالیت می پردازد: توسعه جدول زمانی و برنامه ریزی زمانی خودرو با انواع وسایل نقلیه مختلف. جداول زمانی جایگزین حتی فاصله بين وسائط نقليه ساخته می شوند، اما نه لزوما حجم های مساوی مسافر و یا حجم های مساوی مسافر متوسط، اما نه حتی فاصله بين وسائط نقليه. یک روش برای ساخت جداول زمانی با ترکیبی از هر دوی مفاهیم و فاصله مساوی و حجم مساوی، برای اندازه چند خودرو توسعه معین است. مشکل برنامه ریزی زمانی خودرو بر اساس مجموعه های معین سفرها و انواع خودرو مرتب شده در مرتبه کاهشی هزینه های خودرو است. این مورد را می توان به عنوان یک مسئله شبکه هزینه-جریان با یک سطح پیچیدگی NP-سخت فرموله نمود. بنابراین، یک الگوریتم اکتشافی توسعه می یابد. چند مثال به عنوان یک دستگاه توضیحی برای نشان دادن روش های توسعه یافته مورد استفاده قرار می گیرد.

1- مقدمه
فرایند برنامه ریزی عملیات حمل و نقل عمومی (حمل و نقل) به طور معمول شامل چهار فعالیت اساسی می شود که معمولا به صورت یک دنباله انجام می شوند: (1) طراحی مسیر شبکه، (2) توسعه جدول زمانی (3) برنامه ریزی زمانی خودرو، و (4) برنامه ریزی زمانی خدمه (Ceder 2007). شکل 1 توالی تصمیم گیری نظام مند را برای این چهار فعالیت های برنامه ریزی زمانی نشان می دهد. خروجی هر یک از فعالیت های قرارگرفته در بالا در این دنباله به یک ورودی مهم برای تصمیم گیری های سطح پایین تر تبدیل شده است. واضح است که استقلال و نظم فعالیت های جداگانه، فقط در این نمودار وجود دارد، به عنوان مثال، تصمیمات اتخاذ شده بیشتر به سمت پایین دنباله، دارای برخی از اثرها بر تصمیم گیری های سطح بالاتر است. بنابراین مطلوب است که هر چهار فعالیت به طور همزمان به منظور بهره برداری از توانایی سیستم در به بیشترین حد و افزایش بهره وری و کارایی سیستم برنامه ریزی شود. گاهی اوقات ترتیب و توالی در شکل 1 تکرار می شود؛ بازخورد مورد نیاز در طول زمان گنجانیده شده است. با این حال از آنجا که این فرایند برنامه ریزی زمانی، به ویژه برای اندازه ناوگان از متوسط تا بزرگ، بسیار دست و پا گیر و پیچیده است، نیاز به راه حل جداگانه ای برای هر یک از فعالیت ها، با نتیجه مورد تغذیه شده به عنوان یک ورودی برای بعدی وجود دارد.

Abstract

The public-transport (transit) operation planning process commonly includes four basic activities, usually performed in sequence: network design, timetable development, vehicle scheduling, and crew scheduling. This work addresses two activities: timetable development and vehicle-scheduling with different vehicles types. Alternative timetables are constructed with either even headways, but not necessarily even passenger loads or even average passenger loads, but not even headways. A method to construct timetables with the combination of both even-headway and even-load concepts is developed for multi-vehicle sizes. The vehicle-scheduling problem is based on given sets of trips and vehicle types arranged in decreasing order of vehicle cost. This problem can be formulated as a cost-flow network problem with an NP-hard complexity level. Thus, a heuristic algorithm is developed. A few examples are used as an expository device to illustrate the procedures developed.

1- Introduction

The public-transport (transit) operation planning process commonly includes four basic activities, usually performed in sequence: (1) network route design, (2) timetable development, (3) vehicle scheduling, and (4) crew scheduling (Ceder 2007). Figure 1 shows the systematic decision sequence of these four planning activities. The output of each activity positioned higher in the sequence becomes an important input for lower-level decisions. Clearly the independence and orderliness of the separate activities exist only in the diagram; i.e., decisions made further down the sequence will have some effect on higher-level decisions. It is desirable, therefore, that all four activities be planned simultaneously in order to exploit the system’s capability to the greatest extent and maximize the system’s productivity and efficiency. Occasionally the sequence in Figure 1 is repeated; the required feedback is incorporated over time. However since this planning process, especially for medium to large fleet sizes, is extremely cumbersome and complex, it requires separate treatment for each activity, with the outcome of one fed as an input to the next..

استراتژی بلیط الکترونیکی و پیاده سازی آن در سیستم دسترسی باز: مطالعه موردی Deutsche Bahn

e-Ticketing Strategy and Implementation in an Open Access System: The case of Deutsche Bahn

Abstract

The paper describes the opportunities and challenges of e-ticketing in public transportation. While the concept of eticketing is prevalent in the airline industry, it is difficult to implement in an operating environment where the entire business strategy is based on an “open access” system for flexible travelling. We present here the case study of Deutsche Bahn Mobility as the world’s largest logistic network, in its successful e-Ticketing implementation strategy. First we describe e-ticketing strategies in transportation and briefly differentiate two closely related industry: airlines and railways. Then we describe the strategy and challenges faced by DB in its e-Ticketing implementation follow by proposals of future market expansions areas based on existing platforms and infrastructure. Finally we conclude by setting out implications of this case study for the broader business and research community as agenda for future research.

1 Introduction

E-ticketing in tourism as a “paperless” revolution, first hit US based airlines in the 80s. It was used primarily by domestic carriers operating point to point flights (BusinessTraveller, 2004). The first airline to start experimenting with e-ticketing, in 1984, was United Airlines but it took six years before the procedure was actually implemented. But once it got started, the travel industry globally saw the opportunity for a dramatic transformation in ticketing systems. E-ticketing is a method for documenting sale, tracking usage and accounting for a passenger’s transportation without requiring the issue of paper “value documents”. Passengers are able to book, pay for and print their e-tickets online from any point in the world. The main users of this system are business travellers as this market segment accounts for 70 per cent of all travel (BusinessTraveller, 2004). The business segment, being more “technology savvy”, was also better prepared to adopt this new booking method. The two main advantages for travellers are convenience and a more secure way of travelling. Under the traditional system, most travellers have to carry physical tickets at all time of travelling. With e-ticketing, all associated information will be stored digitally in a central database and therefore there are no chances of the traveller losing them or having them stolen. All the passenger needs to do is to carry the ubiquitous “photo identification” (Anonymous, 2006).

When a public transportation company determines a ticket sales distribution system, it is vital foremost to identify the market segment for which it will be adopted (LaPlaca, 1997). Figure 1 illustrates a generic example of two types of mass public transportation systems – that of airlines and railways: The first row denotes the market segment – charter, business and leisure which are differentiated into residents and non-residents travellers (Fisher, Coogan and MarketSense, 2002). The second row of boxes describes the marketing tools to be applied to each segment with the related distribution channels for the issuance of tickets. For instance, for the charter flight travellers, the strategy would be to sell advanced tickets through tour operators directly. For the local market, the strategy calls for the use of locally available national trip-planning system. A good example in Germany, would be the Deutsche Bahn Internet information system for railway travellers primarily, as well as for other connecting public transportations, excluding the airlines although there are special connecting trains in cooperation with Lufthansa Airlines departing from specific stations. For the technology savvy and mainly higher-scale local business markets, the strategy emphasizes the use of e-ticketing (IATA, 2005) and evolving smartcards and mobile phones1 concepts. For the lower-scale, local short distance travelling, the strategy emphasizes sales at kiosks. For those requiring international travel within Europe, until an international standard is achieved for tickets control for railway, travel agents or sales offices are emphasized. The types of tickets sold can again be differentiated by the time of travelling. The first type would be advanced ticket sales or sales at the time of trip planning which is requires sales via vending machines, at sales offices or self printed tickets – thus e-tickets. The second type will be the strategies for sales while en route—for example, on board the German ICE trains.

The e-ticketing strategy has been well exploited in the airline segment, however in public transportation as a whole, especially the railway/metro/bus travel segments, implementation techniques have been mixed due to the varying business environment and travel culture. This paper describes the opportunities and challenges of e-ticketing in “open access” public transportation, focusing on the example of the railways.

While the concept of e-ticketing is prevalent in the airline industry, it is difficult to implement in an operating environment where the entire business strategy is based on an “open access” system for flexible travelling. We present here the case study of Deutsche Bahn Mobility (DB) as a pioneering example within this “open access” travelling context. First we briefly differentiate two closely related industry: airlines and railways. Then we describe the strategy and challenges faced by DB in its e-Ticketing implementation follow by proposals of future market expansions areas based on existing platforms and infrastructure. Finally we conclude by setting out implications of this case study for the broader business and research community as agenda for future research.