دانلود رایگان ترجمه مقاله ویژگی های کلیدی شیر مادر و شیر خشک – MDPI 2016

مروری بر تغذیه نوزاد: ویژگی های کلیدی شیر مادر و شیر خشک

Review of Infant Feeding: Key Features of Breast Milk and Infant Formula

Abstract 

Mothers’ own milk is the best source of nutrition for nearly all infants. Beyond somatic growth, breast milk as a biologic fluid has a variety of other benefits, including modulation of postnatal intestinal function, immune ontogeny, and brain development. Although breastfeeding is highly recommended, breastfeeding may not always be possible, suitable or solely adequate. Infant formula is an industrially produced substitute for infant consumption. Infant formula attempts to mimic the nutritional composition of breast milk as closely as possible, and is based on cow’s milk or soymilk. A number of alternatives to cow’s milk-based formula also exist. In this article, we review the nutritional information of breast milk and infant formulas for better understanding of the importance of breastfeeding and the uses of infant formula from birth to 12 months of age when a substitute form of nutrition is required.

1. Introduction

Mothers’ own milk is considered to be the best source of infant nutrition [1]. Extensive evidence has shown that breast milk contains a variety of bioactive agents that modify the function of the gastrointestinal tract and the immune system, as well as in brain development. Thus, breast milk is widely recognized as a biological fluid required for optimal infant growth and development. Recently, studies have further suggested that breast milk mitigates infant programming of late metabolic diseases, particularly protecting against obesity and type 2 diabetes [2]. The World Health Organization recommends that infants should be exclusively breastfed for the first six month of life [3]. The American Academy of Pediatrics also recommends breastfeeding for at least 12 months [4]. Recently, the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics reaffirms and updates their mission that exclusive breastfeeding provides optimal nutrition and health protection for the first six months of life, and that breastfeeding with complementary foods from six months until at least 12 months of age is the ideal feeding pattern for infants [1]. In addition to its nutritional advantage, breastfeeding is convenient and inexpensive, and also is a bonding experience for the mother and infant. The decision to breastfeed is highly personal and is often influenced by many factors [5]. Under certain situations, breastfeeding might not be possible, unsuitable or inadequate, which warrants an interruption or cessation in breastfeeding. Globally, only 38% of infants are exclusively breastfed. In the United States, only 75% of infants initiate breastfeeding from birth; however, by the age of three months, 67%, or 2.7 million, of them rely on infant formula for some portion of their nutrition [6]. Among new mothers, the six-month “any breastfeeding” rate for the total U.S. population is 43%, with only 13% meeting the recommendation to breastfeed exclusively for six months [4]. Infant formula is intended as an effective substitute for infant feeding [7,8]. Although production of an identical product to breast milk is not feasible, every effort has been taken to mimic the nutrition profile of human breast milk for normal infant growth and development. Cow milk or soymilk are most commonly used as the base, with supplemental ingredients added to better approximate the composition to human breast milk and to attain health benefits, including iron, nucleotides and compositions of fat blends. The fatty acids of arachidonic acid (AA) and docosahexenoic acid (DHA) are added. Probiotics and compounds, produced by genetic engineering, are either added or currently being considered for addition to formula. During the first six months of infant life, providing optimal nutrition is critical as the consequences of inadequate nutrition can be very severe. The purpose of this article is to review nutritional information on breast milk and infant formulas to reinforce the importance of breastfeeding, while also understanding the uses of infant formula.