دانلود رایگان مقاله انگلیسی بررسی جنبه های مختلف همزیستی: هم سفرگی و همیاری به همراه ترجمه فارسی
عنوان فارسی مقاله: | بررسی جنبه های مختلف همزیستی: هم سفرگی و همیاری |
عنوان انگلیسی مقاله: | PARASITISM, COMMENSALISM, AND MUTUALISM: EXPLORING THE MANY SHADES OF SYMBIOSES |
رشته های مرتبط: | زیست شناسی، ژنتیک، علوم جانوری |
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توضیحات | ترجمه این مقاله به صورت خلاصه انجام شده است. |
کد محصول | F146 |
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بخشی از ترجمه فارسی مقاله: همزیستی و تغییر و جابه جایی آن (TRANSMISSION) |
بخشی از مقاله انگلیسی: SYMBIOSES AND TRANSMISSION After considering these extrinsic factors of circumstances and time that can influence symbiotic relationships, it is worthwhile discussing an intrinsic factor, a property of the symbionts themselves, which may influence the position that a particular symbiosis may occupy along the continuum of fitness outcomes. This factor, arguably one of the most important life-history traits of the symbiont in terms of determining its relationship with its host, is its mode of transmission. Current theories recognise that transmission mode plays a key role in determining the virulence of a symbiont (Ewald 1995, Day 2001, Ferdy & Godelle 2005). Thus, vertical transmission means that the fitness outcomes of both the symbiont and the host are aligned, such that cooperation between the two parties (or at least lower virulence by the symbiont) would be an outcome favoured by selection (Ewald 1995). In contrast, if the fitness of the symbiont is not exclusively intertwined with that of its host, then its fitness can be improved by exploiting its host more aggressively while returning fewer benefits, which should push the association on the evolutionary path towards parasitism. Wolbachia is a well-known maternally-inherited, vertically-transmitted intracellular reproductive parasite of arthropods, most noted for its role in distorting the sex ratio of its host’s progeny. It is known to impose various fitness costs on its host, such as physiological impairment (Fleury et al. 2000), decreased sperm quality (Champion de Crespigny & Wedell 2006), reduced immune response (Fytrou et al. 2006), mortality of male embryos (Hurst et al. 1999, Zeh & Zeh 2006), and reproductive failure resulting from cytoplasmic incompatibility (Perrot-Minnot et al. 2002). However, it has been found that within a short period of less than two decades, a strain of Wolbachia has actually evolved to improve the fecundity of its host by an average 10 % over that of uninfected conspecifics (Weeks et al. 2007). Thus this particular strain of Wolbachia has evolved from a parasite into a mutualist. Such a result is fully compatible with the expectations of the current theories of virulence. While the transmission mode of Wolbachia is predominantly vertical, with horizontal transmission occurring only on rare occasions (Huigens et al. 2004), changes in virulence associated with a change in the mode of transmission can be experimentally demonstrated with symbionts that have transmission routes that can alternate between the horizontal and vertical modes. Endosymbiotic dinoflagellates provide an example of this phenomenon. Members of the genus Symbiodinium are known to be associated with a range of invertebrates common in the tropical and subtropical marine environments (Trench 1997). One species, Symbiodinium microadriaticum, is found in the upside-down jellyfish Cassiopea xamachana which are born free of the algae and can either acquire them from the environment or inherit them during the asexual reproduction phase (Sachs & Wilcox 2006). Sachs & Wilcox (2006) experimentally bred two lines of algae under the enforcement of either a horizontal or vertical transmission regime, and as expected, algae that were selected under the horizontal regime caused a significant reduction in host growth and budding when compared with algae selected by the vertical transmission regime. However, it was also found that the more harmful algae were impaired by their own proliferation as they debilitated the jellyfish in such a manner that hindered their own spread (Sachs & Wilcox 2006). It is conceivable that under the right circumstances, normally beneficial symbionts can evolve to become harmful, and a symbiont’s status of being either a mutualist or a parasite is by no means stable. RETHINKING OUR LABELS While it may appear that whether or not to call a particular biological association parasitism, commensalism, or mutualism is a matter of semantics, such labels can be value-laden and lead to erroneous assumptions about the true nature of the relationship, and they may even hinder insightful research. For example, if Anderson & Midgley (2007) had simply accepted that the hemipteran symbi-onts of R. dentata are mutualists on the basis of the vital service they perform for their host plant, they would not have discovered the cost the hemipterans can impose on the plant at higher densities. Likewise, if Towanda and Thuessen (2006) had observed the larvae of C. gracilis feeding on tissue of their scyphozoan host and concluded that the relationship is a parasitic one, they would not have found that as the crab larvae mature, they protect the host from harmful parasitoids. While for some, the term “symbiosis” denotes mutually-beneficial relationships, we have used it here as a general term to describe any kind of intimate biological association. However, recent advances in ecological and evolutionary research have shown us that even the sub-categories under the broader umbrella of symbiosis – mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism – may not be as permanent or well defined as we would like to imagine. We therefore urge caution with the use of these labels, since the associations they characterise are highly plastic and never fixed. |